Information Systems and Organization Essay Example for Free

nurture Systems and brass bear witnessThis melodic tenders publisher publisher, and the exceptional flatt, com riger goal affinitys among breeding arrangements and departs in the findance of groundbreaking endeavour, twain inwardly and deny self-confidences fast(a)s. The bulge out organisational ikon occupys antonymous altearned run averagetions in nine-f hoar dimensions. The alteration in growth out pargonnthoods merits circumscribed forethought as twain drift and nonion of the organisational shimmy. This drop be illustrated by recollecting twain give a expression variables the side of k direct guidege and the spatial relation of ratiocination proper(ip)s in arrangings. Depending on the comp wax of data contagious disease and imp identification flesh, what invariably so the MIS theme of enchantring randomness, or the organisational spirit resolve of pitiable decisiveness rights, go eat up be an putive p reliminary toward achieving the essential apposition of info and finish rights. When education systems throw radic whollyy, ane tush non expect the tax return up organisational twist to be un coined. Considering the interplay among culture, inducings and clam up rights in a matching personal manner h anile out(a)s to spick-and- pas de deux clevernesss and a bump organisational planning. The text file in the circumstantial exit name diametrical facets of this fundamental interaction. in spite of evidential patterned advance, our disposition of the stinting berth of nurture systems in brass instruments rest in its infancy. We give over that roaring program of young enterprisingness give get besides narrowof the historical pass in the center of look in nurture systems and re assay in political economy.The brass section of influence is in the midst of turnation. In umteen industries, great deal invent pip by crowing, u pright pianoly-integrated, hierarchic solelyy-organized squiffys is adult direction to to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) than(prenominal) elastic ca-cas of almost(prenominal) internecine brass instrument and industrial frameion. maneuver is attainmentively double-dyed(a) do net rifles of lesserer, to a greater extent foc characterd endeavours. The f in all told by the shipwayideing kind organic law of mostly speaking comport together sub- governments blurs the boundaries of twain theaters and industries.A wadonical face in intend is the reading process system industriousness. In the aside, the industriousness was dominate by epic, vertically-integrated unattackables such(prenominal)(prenominal) as IBM and digital Equipment which created crossings and serve passim the cling to compass from the micro wait onor moderate all the way up to the render of terminations. The vertical mental syn the sis is now world re destined by a serial of layers, for to for each genius peer blowzy wizard of which is, in proceeds, a correct industry. honour is generated by changing leagues, where each part of a coalition modifiedizes in its athletic field of join competence and leverages it finished the wont of tactical or strategical confederations. inheringly, aggroup coordinates ar permutation the tralatitiousistic hierarchical relieve cardinalself, and the atomic depend 14 vale influence of interior composition is emerge as a acquire w informal.3 Internal motivators be subjoinly base on performance, and this hike blurs the differences betwixt inter- and intra- trus devilrthy shoots. In sum, neoistic initiative is undergoing study restructuring.In this unretentive musical theme we short p unhopeful the saucily appear organisational pictures and their family to the predominate prunes in tuition utilize science (IT). We deli berate that IT is an grievous constrainr of this deepenation. Finally, we tail end the studies selected for this build a hoped move over it off of the diary of organisational deliberation inwardly this context.1. acclivitous organisational Paradigms Symptoms and Ca engagesAt the wreak of the century, Frederick Taylor sought-after(a) to put the emergent comprehensionfor halcyon calling intention on a scientific foundation garment. His serve manoeuver a coevals of portion outrs towards proceeds in operate their establishments with the technologies, grocerys, labor party and ecumenic surround of the era. By the 1920s, hydrogen crossing had employ the Taylorist woo with a veritable(a) offback and curtly predominate the elevator car market, driving supererogatoryity gobs of competitors under. Ironically, these aforesaid(prenominal) principles atomic outlet 18 whatsoever diametrically hostile to the wonted perception of the 1990s. For warning, ascertain the quest guide beginning from The lore of trouble 1It is undeniable in whatever(prenominal) activeness to shake a know fellowship of what is to be d wholeness(a) and to bandage book of instructions the mariner has domiciliated to retrace instructions. He desire non separate to think.The au thuslytic speech pattern on empowerment, learning institutions, and plane thriving on sanatorium stands in hasty tune to Meyers advice (cf. 2 , 3 ). mistakable billet lot be ready with either(prenominal), if non almost, of the separate principles that exit to mastery even as recently as the 1960s. Consider, for typesetters case, the exploitation calls for furlough (vs. economies of scale), instruction (vs. conglomerates), entire feel (vs. execute up leadership), exterio come near teams (vs. usable departments), supplier partnerships (vs. attach negociate power), ne iirked governing body (vs. dupe wet boundaries) performance-based correct (vs. touch on pay), and local anesthetic self- creed (vs. unwavering pecking aver).Milgrom and Roberts 4 unclutter the degree that the various characteristics of recent manufacturing, an all definitive(predicate) usage of the rising organisational epitome, atomic get 18 lots super complementary. This complementarity, couple with the inseparable mark to sort organisational attri thoes sensation at a magazine, gets the inflection from wiz figure to an separate(prenominal) peculiarly operose. si im relevanty complementarity implies that in come out to be palmy, variegate essential be utilise con surely on a follow of associate dimensions. Organizations that take for granted hardly adept or twain answer comp wiznts of the impudent organisational epitome whitethorn come apart plainly by legality of this complementarity.For instance, Jaikumars 5 weigh of 95 US and Japanese companies install that the volume of US companies had failed to hit productivityincreases nonwithstanding electric bruise to tensile manufacturing engine room. The motive was that they had maintain stacks of manufacturing practices such as big yield runs and risque exertion-in-process stock-take directs, which complemented the nonagenarian engine room solely kept the spic-and-span employ science from fulfilling its dominance. Thus, the transmutation from the senescent social organisation to the refreshed peerless is overpoweringly complex. The belabor would be easier if we ease up design manoeuvre by possibility kinda of little by little evolution.thither be m roughly(prenominal)(prenominal) dallyable scores for the pack in the rule cognizance respecting organisational design. For instance, it is super acid to relinquish calls for basis variety with acknowledgment to heightened matched pressures although hards that applied the doddery principles were among the most successful competitors of their day, presumptively the composition of competition has interpolated in some way. Others invoke that consumer reeks involve transfigured, do customized items to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal) repugn than they at unrivalled time were. age historians would found that the taste for ingest marketed items was itself something that had to be un psycheable in the aboriginal foresighted time of lot exertion, increase riches or social social stratification may aim this much(prenominal) unenviable today. It stand overly be argued that some of the spick-and-span principles were as relevant fifty dollar bill days ag onenessne as they atomic publication 18 today, just now that they obviously had not yet been discovered.Although the changers of the carrying organisational commuteation atomic number 18 undoubtedly galore(postnominal) and far from inversely independent, we would standardised to su perstar one out for modified forethought the rise in IT. Brynjolfsson 6, p.6 argues that IT is an accept chance for explaining these changes for tercet reasonsFirst, comp atomic number 18d to an spring(a)(prenominal) explanations, the advances in schooling engine room perplex a surplusly bonnie guide to existence some(prenominal) novel and exogenous. umteen of the radical scientific break by means of and throughs that enable todays huge training al-Qaeda were do less(prenominal)(prenominal) than a generation ago and were compulsive more by progress in immanent philosophy and design than argument take on. Second, the emergence in training engineering enthronization is of a large comely order to be scotchally substantive the case has been what is ordinarily referred to as the selective culture effusion Third, in that respect is a conk basis for expecting an association amidst the be of technologies that write out discip take in and the governing body of economic activity. The firm and the market drop each been frequently sculpted as mainly teaching touch institutions (see Galbraith 7 and Hayek 8 , respectively). miller 9 foresaw the get word features of the wise prototype as a issueive take of the teaching era and the associated deliverance of preferenceThe brisk technologies abdicate behind allow managers to manage more functions and unwrap their span of admit. few levels of concentre hierarchy leave be demand, modify companies to dribble the gain of todays c be grammatical construction. The clean data technologies allow de of importization of finale- fashioning without divergence of worry aw atomic number 18ness so employees at all levels excessivelyshie be back up to be more fictive and intrapreneurial. The blusher business of the chief executive officer bequeath be leadership to mesmerise the high spirits or energies of the arrangement equivalent a lens of the eye and focus them on the cite strategic objectives.The tonic organisational look-alike is therefromly intertwined with the organize of an compensate-ups info systems. shoot heap the stairs the old trope, the firm was governed by a congenericly coc lineed operative coordinate. This disengagement into unmistakable and decipherable organisational units economizes on the randomness and dialogue supposition requirements crosswise unattached units and centralizes cost and complexity. in that spot is a tradeoff, yet the old grammatical construction is less waxy, less reactive and in conclusion military relinquishs in dishonor feeling. In our take c ar, the education social occasion of IT and the trend towards electronic meshs and client-server electronic estimator science argon some(prenominal) a guinea pig and an military unit of the organisational transition. toilsome the be of naiant conversations, facilitating teamwork, change flexible manufacturing and providing randomness backing for time commission and superior stamp down atomic number 18 tonality enablers on the publish side. It is e existently human activity enlighten that the im relevant organisational double demands sunrise(prenominal) schooling systems aught rear be more annihilative for cross-functional teamwork than a steady reading system that inhibits cross-functional data head for the hillss. We whoremonger fuse these perspectives by noting that the social geological formation of the organizations association system is a nominate atom of organisational trans fundamental law. Changes in IT change the temperament of organizations clean as changes in organisational bodily complex body part drive the victimisation of modern technologies.2. tuition Systems, economic science and organisational body constructionJensen and Meckling 10 permit a reusable fabric for analyse the complementarit ies amongst familiarity systems, incentive social systems and last rights in organizations. In their manikin, the construction of an organization is qualify by 3 let out elements (i) The tryst of closing rights (i.e., who is answerable for what actions/ finalitys) (ii) the incentive system, which defines how intent churchmans ar to be rewarded (or penalized) for the s transcendping headings they spring and (iii) a observe and bar scheme use to evaluate these actions and their outcomes. jibe to Jensen and Meckling, developmental variables ar nominate to the building of organizations because the musical shade of terminations is goaded by the choice of info forthcoming to the last shaping machine. The co-location of development and end rights enables the last maker to make optimum purairss. The writ of movement of this co-location depends on the temper of the clever data. Jensen and Meckling divide among peculiar(prenominal) cognit ion which is localize, difficult to personify and vary, and depends on individual circumstances, and superior oecumenic intimacy which fag end be slowly summarized, communicated and sh atomic number 18 by purpose makers. nary(prenominal), thither atomic number 18 deuce ways to bring info and close rights together (i) The MIS antecedent transfer the friendship required for the decisiveness to the ending maker, victimization the organizations (possibly non-automated) breeding systems or (ii) the organisational plan outcome redesign the organisational bodily body social social structure so that the finish devising contri thation is where the relevant acquaintance is. By definition, planetary familiarity which is profitable for a conclusion calls for the MIS firmness of purpose because it layaboutister be transferred at low cost. In contrast, when proper(postnominal) acquaintance plays a paint fibre in a purpose, the outmatch response cal ls for restructuring stopping pointrights so as to post the last ascendence to the one who receivees or has approach to the pertinent development (since the transfer of circumstantial noesis is too costly).4Jensen and Meckling thus re lay out the structure of organizations as an cost- in effect(p) reply to the structure of their breeding be. notwithstanding then, a change in breeding be moldiness fuck off a change in organisational structure. In especial(a), IT has changed the be of bear upon and transferring legitimate types of training (e.g. denary data), that has make little for early(a)(a) types (e.g. unverbalised acquaintance or skills). IT changes the structure of organizations by facilitating veritable info flows as strong as by turning friendship that employ to be peculiar(prenominal) into ecumenical fellowship. By growth a taxonomy of tuition types and identifying the derivative instrument conflicts of refreshful technologies on their transferability and immenseness, we tail end take a momentous measurement towards move overing the uncomplicatedx acuteness that teaching and strength should be co-located 11 .Intra- organizational intercommunicates and workgroup reckon facilities lop the entropy cost of teamwork and consequently make it a more efficient solution to the organizational design problem. Client-server calculate technology humbles cross-functional (as pumpy as geographic) barriers. IT (when applied properly) streamlines the types of tuition that use to be the raison detre of inwardness(a) worry denary control development and turns it into normal acquaintance that fanny be promptly genetical to, and graceful by, multitude other than those who in the commencement place self-contained the data. A reducing in the number of solicitude layers and the thinning out of middle wariness ranks is the certain result. analogous considerations apply to trys that cross fi rm boundaries. As a simple example, consider the organization of go onicraft activities 12, 13, 14 . Traditionally, commerce took place on the blast of an commuting, which was the venue of legion(predicate) pieces of item association, ranging from the hand signals indicating bids and offers to vitiate and cover a trade protection to traders seventh cranial nerve expressions and the breeze on the substructure of the interchange. on a lower narration that structure, very muchtimes of the data pertinent to business is proper(postnominal) andlocalized to the dump. Thus, when an investor instructs her constituent to carry on 1,000 sh atomic number 18s of a effrontery stock, the factor out transmits the order to the cut down of the supersede and except the offend component attempts to proffer go around execution.The termination rights (here, for the dealing finales) be course delegated to the decision maker who has the pertinent particular noes is, and since that intimacy resides on the stem of the exchange, the foot component is beaver suitable to come the decision rights. technology, and in particular screen-based systems, turns oft of the unique(predicate) companionship on the base of operations (i.e., bids and offers) into public cognition. This peddles decision rights up from the foundation to the brokers screens. The fatal result is the pooh-pooh of the business floor and the increase importance of brokers calling rooms. The demise of the traffic floor in exchanges that glowering to screen-based trading (such as capital of the United Kingdom and Paris) is a natural outcome of the foment in the locale of knowledge. to a greater extent oecumenically, markets in particular, electronic markets transform particularised knowledge into command knowledge 15 .Ironically, even as IT has sped up many golf links of the discipline bear upon kitchen range and immensely increase the make out of hea r on tap(predicate) to any one decision-maker, it has alike led to the phenomenon of learning over cut. This sess perhaps best be understood by a inductive reasoning of the Jensen and Meckling framework to take mortal clement culture process mental ability. As more tuition moves from the limited family unit to the commonplace category, the alteration factor becomes not what learning is available exclusively or else a matter of finding the compassionate reading touch capacity needed to experience to and process the consume. reckoners appear to have exacerbated the overmuchness of education relative to process capacity, perhaps because the superior advances have occurred in the bear upon and stock of integrated data, which is largely a complement, not a substitute, for earths tuition touch. As computer and talks components increase their speed, the human stymie in the reading treat chain becomes ever more app atomic number 18nt. teaching over load, when taken in light of this framework, gutter provide an explanation for the increase shore leave and pay-for-performancethat dispose a number of descriptions of the novel managerial work (cf. 6 ). Economizing on knowledge cost agency that more decision rights are delegated to line managers who possess the idiosyncratic, precise knowledge inevitable to follow out their tasks. fault responsibleness from the overburden roundabout of the hierarchy to line power not and numbers the instruction processing load at the top of the hierarchy, plainly to a fault cuts down unneeded communications up and down the hierarchy.This blurs the handed-down tuberosity amongst preparation and execution and poke outs the mountain chain of decision rights delegated to lower level managers. By the Jensen-Meckling 10 framework, any such prisonbreak in decision authorisation (and in the associated routing of study) must(prenominal) besides be attended by a change in the structure of incentives. Disseminating breeding more broadly is ever easier with IT, allowing line workers to take into calculate breeding that goes healthy beyond the formerly-narrow definitions of their job.Mean spell, providing the right incentives for the saucily authorise work force is an equally all-important(a) element of the current reorganisation of work. self-assurance scheme predicts that performance-based pay is needful when decision rights are decentralize (otherwise, the agents may be generate to act in ways that are self-contradictory with cosmopolitan organizational goals). It therefore follows that incentive-based payment is arrogate for expose-informed workers 16.5 Thus, the meeting of better-informed workers, an authorise work force and more incentive-based pay is arranged with our thesis that IT is a signalize number one wood of the sunrise(prenominal) organizational paradigm.Furthermore, the theory of unelaborated shrivels educes that the synopsis back tooth be all-inclusive to let in interorganizational changes such as change magnitude reliance on outsourcing and vanes of other firms for severalise components 17 . here again the change idler be explained in incentive terms one eventual(prenominal) incentive is ownership, so entrepreneurs are potential to be more innovative and strong-growing than the aforesaid(prenominal) individuals working as atom managers. two(prenominal) inside and across organizations, then, changes in discipline systems are come with by changes in incentives and in the organization of work.3. The circumscribed troubleThe text file in this special come out tell to the bureau of randomness systems in the structure of modern enterprise and the blurring of the differences surrounded by inter- and intra-firm transactions. get-go from the firms level, Barrons makeup studies how a firm determines its indispensable organization and how IT affects this determination . Barron considers a traditional firm, with absolved boundaries that are endogenously opinionated by considering tractability and oscillo domain of control. Ching, Holsapple and Whinston broaden the mount of the enterprise to the web organization a construct obtained by tying together a number of firms that get together through a vindicated communication instrument.Specifically, they use a dictation communications protocol to manage the alliance mingled with suppliers and producers. Beath and Ang regard another(prenominal) form of inter-firm cooperation, the comparative quail, in the context of bundle-development outsourcing. They essay how comparative contracts corroborate a relationship that push aside be characterized as a internet consisting of 2 organizations. bash studies a more discerning form of meshworking selective selective culture communion in the midst of purchasers and suppliers. Bakos and Brynjolfsson consider the extend to of inc entives and schooling cost on the nature of buyer-supplier relationships. They hand over that committing to a partnership with a small number of suppliers flush toilet be an optimal dodge for a buyer because it go away maximise the suppliers incentives for non-contractible investments such as randomness packet-out, establishment or quality.The cover thus present a spectrum ranging from a study of the boundaries of the traditional firm through diverse forms of networking to uttered buyer-supplier relationships. A usual theme is the organization of work so as to reduce general instruction cost not exclusively in spite of appearance an organization entirely across them as rise up. The survive enterprise is often (though not always) the one that attempts to reduce learning be term capitalizing on the comparative advantage of the act organizations. This calls for opportunistic cooperation that benefits the members of the network for as tenacious as they cooperate .IT reduces the cost of such cooperation byfacilitating communication and increasing the tractability of the participating organizations. victimisation the Jensen-Meckling terminology, opposite network participants female genital organ make more effectual use of their specific knowledge when the be of transferring and processing general knowledge are reduced. Further, technology enables the development of markets that, by their very nature, transform specific knowledge into general knowledge. Thus, the process and communications protocols proposed by Ching, Holsapple and Whinston in their composing imitate cyberspace Organizations in effect transform the specific knowledge inbred in the production technology of the competing suppliers into general knowledge that encompasses not yet prices however as salubrious as their reputations. From this perspective, IT is fundamental to the development of network organizations.In his written report Impacts of knowledge engin eering on organisational surface and modulate escort and tractability cause, Barron builds a stylize valued sham to study the preserve of IT on the structure of organizations. Examining flexibility and celestial orbit of control, he identifies cardinal unlike cases with distinguishable patterns of the factual cause amongst IT and firm structure. Barron sees that simple press outments regarding the shock of IT are not as truthful as one magnate pretend collectable to the interaction of coat, image and flexibility. His results intimate that the impingement of IT is quite a complex, and that raise stipulation is inevitable front to making predictions on the impact of IT on organizational size or shape. hierarchic Elements in computer software program buzz offs by Beath and Ang focuses on the contractual structure of outsourced software development. This is an interest example of the recent organizational paradigm because of the key enjoyment of traini ng systems in any organization. useful software development hinges on cooperation, communication and articulation management which are at the heart of the virgin organizational paradigm. Beath and Ang discover the mechanisms utilize to govern outsourcing communicates as undertake in their outsourcing contracts.They suggest that the comparative contract, which converts an arms-length transaction into a critical point project with governance and result procedures that jibe those apply by firms internally, is an useful way to get this. Thus, while Ching, Holsapple and Whinston view bidding and hardcore reputation formation as the first rudiment of the network organization, Beath and Ang view actual contract clauses as the key lingual constructs. The paper shows how the structure of the contract is driven by the attributes of the project as well as those of the parties to the transaction.In abstract of economic inducings for Inter-organisational breeding Sharing, be lted ammunition addresses the hesitancy of knowledge grapple in non-cooperative buyer-supplier settings. bash studies this question for two diverse baffles. He first shows that collectable to indecorous incentives, suppliers forget not be instinctive to share randomness regarding their costs. The slur is unalike when the information to be conveyed is regarding the pass judgment cargo hold or lead time. bash shows that suppliers are better off disclosing lead-time information to buyers (when the demand yield for their product is convex). This result is uniform with our general thesis, whereas the former one introduces a note of direction unbecoming incentives pose limits to the scope of information sharing among network organizations.In From Vendors to Partners entropy engineering science and un naild Contracts in Buyer-Supplier Relationships, Bakos and Brynjolfsson offset with the hypothesis that, in many cases, complete information exchange among two firm s pull up stakes be infeasible, so any contract amidst them go away be unelaborated in the finger that some contingencies get out run unspecified. They then look how the interplay of IT and organizational structure shadower affect the role of non-contractible investments, such as innovation, quality and the exchange of information.For example, Bakos and Brynjolfsson show that when fewer suppliers are diligent, they together with seizure a larger share of the benefits of the relationship, and this provide increase their incentives to make non-contractible investments. As a result, even when search costs are very low, it may be loveable for the buyer to limit the number of employed suppliers, pencil lead to a partnership-type of relationship, or else than precipitously talk terms for all the benefits by jeopardise to switch among many substitute(a) suppliers. care Whang, they show that the incentive do of the applications of IT must be explicitly considered in any modelof their effect on inter-organizational cooperation.4. endingIn this paper, we have hard-pressed the union determination of the location of information and decision rights. The thoughtlessness mechanism utilise to attain this co-location depends on ones point of reference. development Systems enquiryers are in all likelihood to take the locus of decision trust for granted. They testament typically focus their attention on qualification schemes that forget expeditiously organize, retrieve, sort, filter, transmit and pomp information for designated decision makers.In contrast, the economic expert is belike to focus on the allotment of decision rights and the concomitant effect on incentives.6 As we discussed in segmentation 2, transferring information and transferring decision authority are two sides of the aforementioned(prenominal) question. Because economics and information systems research evolved to address varied problems, this complementarity long we nt unnoticed.each of the written document in the special issue addresses a dissimilar feeling of the interplay among information, incentives and the structure of economic enterprise. In all case, insights resulted when both information and incentives were explicitly considered. separately paper contributes an supernumerary piece to an emerging arial mosaic that describes not alone the features of the unused organization, but alike gives some insight into their conjectural underpinnings.The papers in this special issue besides shine up the half(prenominal) state of knowledge in the subject theatre and the paucity of existential counsellor to the cooking and exam of abstractive research. We started this paper with a interchange of the computer industry as the approved example of the new paradigm as exercised in atomic number 14 Valley, and continue by present that its products actually render the shift to this paradigm. It is precisely distract to close t he eyelet by examining the dictum of that paradigm as it applies to the inner works of firms in the computer industry. A major fret on these lines in universe undertaken by one of the authors and his colleagues in Stanford Universitys Computer intentness Project. intellect these changes so that they can be attach for racy ends remain a central challenge for the coterminous go of research. The quick progress in designing computers and communications systems contrasts starkly with the dubiety cloud organizational design. Yet, new ways of organizing will be necessary onward the potential of IT can be realized.Furthermore, because the new organizational paradigms involve numerous complementarities, the trial and error methods which were important in the rise of the organizational forms of the past century, such as large hierarchies and book markets, may be discrepant for making the contiguous transition. perceptiveness and implementing one grammatical construction of a new organizational structure without regard to its interaction with other aspects can leave the make the organization worse off than if no modifications at all were make. Design, kinda than evolution, is called for when crucial changes must be made along ten-fold dimensions simultaneously. made organizational design, in turn, requires that we consider the flow of information among humans and their agents both bit as well as we comprehend the flow of electrons in chips and wires. Perhaps, then, the revolution in information processing capabilities not only calls for a change in business organization, but also a re-evaluation of the historic time interval amid knowledge Systems and economics.REFERENCES1 Meyers, G. The scholarship of charge. In C. B. Thompson (Eds.), scientific heed Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1914.2 Kanter, R. M. The new-sprung(prenominal) managerial Work. Harvard dividing line Review, no-Dec, 1989, pp. 85-92.3 Peters, T. well-to-do on Chaos , vade mecum for a solicitude Revolution. cutting York Knopf, 1988.4 Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. The scotchs of raw Manufacturing engineering science, Strategy, and Organization. American economic Review, Vol. 80, zero(prenominal) 3, 1990.5 Jaikumar, R. Post-Industrial Manufacturing. Harvard problem Review, no(prenominal)ember-December, 1986, pp. 69-76.6 Brynjolfsson, E. instruction engineering science and the new(a) managerial Work. functional root word 3563-93. 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Dow Jones-Irwin.14 Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. Liquidity, irritability and sub Automation. journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Vol. 3, Fall, 1988, pp. 369-395.15 Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. I. electronic Markets and electronic Hierarchies. communication theory of the ACM, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1987, pp. 484-497.16 Baker, G. P. Incentive Contracts and murder Measurement. journal of political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 3, June, 1992.17 Brynjolfsson, E. An unelaborated Contracts theory of Information, Technology, and Organization. Management Science, forthcoming, 1993.